Review / Special IssueEstimating external loads and internal demands by positioning systems and innovative data processing approaches during intermittent running activities in team and racquet sportsModellierung der externen Belastungen und inneren Beanspruchungen mittels Ortungssystemen und innovativen Datenanalysen während intervallartiger Laufaktivitäten in den Mannschafts- und Rückschlagsportarten
Introduction
In team and racquet sports, fundamental characteristics of the activity profile are intermittent running activities, containing repeated accelerations, decelerations, sprints, and changes of direction [40], [69]. Regarding external loads (e.g., forces) [63] and internal demands (e.g., metabolism) [12], intermittent running activities are less investigated; especially under field conditions, involving more sport-specific open skill [73] and fatigue/pacing [60] situations compared to laboratory conditions [79]. Plausibly, this lack of research is due to the fact that no appropriate technologies were available in the past.
However, in this article, we introduce positioning systems, as a state of the art technology in sport science, in combination with innovative data processing approaches for estimating external loads and internal demands during intermittent running activities. Fig. 1 shows the flow-chart of our article and summarizes the key points of each section. First, application fields of positioning systems in team and racquet sports are suggested. Then, technological prerequisites, namely the selection of an appropriate technology and application of filtering techniques, are explained. Next, innovative data processing approaches for estimating external loads and internal demands are emphasized and exemplary outcomes are displayed and discussed. Finally, future perspectives and conclusions are provided.
Section snippets
Application fields
In team and racquet sports, one application field of positioning systems are performance analyses [24], including standardized field tests (e.g., linear, nonlinear, and repeated sprint tests or sport-specific circuits) and match analyses (i.e., friendly and competitive matches). The resulting data (e.g., maximal velocity during sprint tests or total distance covered during play) can be used to profile the athletes, for example, regarding age [19], gender [14], playing position [29], level [16],
Selection of an appropriate technology
A prerequisite to use positioning systems for the suggested application fields, is the selection of an appropriate technology for which knowledge concerning the technical background is essential. Briefly, in recent years, the positioning technology has switched away from video-camera to GPS and LPS [48]. Both newer technologies determine the position (i.e., the x,y-coordinates) by triangulation [3], [76]. Therefore, GPS devices use time signals emitted by satellites orbiting the earth (i.e., a
Application of filtering techniques
A further, but frequently ignored, technological prerequisite for using positioning systems is the application of filtering techniques. While it is increasingly accepted to apply filtering techniques and that their specifications (e.g., type of filter, cut-off frequency, and number of passes) have large influences on the outcomes (e.g., peak velocity or ACC/DEC data) [49], we were the first to draw special attention to this important topic [45]. To explain, the measured/calculated raw velocity
Application of innovative data processing approaches
Here, innovative data processing approaches for estimating external loads and internal demands by positioning systems during intermittent running activities are introduced. The approaches are called “innovative”, because they (i) reveal knowledge beyond that of traditional approaches; (ii) are firstly presented or initially combined for obtaining “higher-order” measures; and finally (iii) can breakdown existing conceptual-methodological limits of the exercise physiology. Especially due to the
Future perspectives
In many team sports, next to running activities, fundamental characteristics of the activity profile are also jumps [7]. Hence, one future perspective is to develop positioning systems for jump analyses. Therefore, not only the horizontal x,y-, but also the vertical z-coordinates of the athletes must be accurately measured. Presently, on an elite team/racquet sport level, differences in success between teams/athletes are mainly caused by differences in technical–tactical skills [46], [50].
Conclusions
The application of positioning systems in combination with innovative data processing approaches can provide new insights into external loads and internal demands during intermittent running activities in team and racquet sports. Therefore, comprehensive knowledge of three aspects is essential: (i) technological prerequisites; (ii) data processing approaches; and (iii) biomechanical/biological meaning of the outcomes. When these aspects are reflected, we finally conclude, what leading
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Joana Brochhagen for her helpful linguistic comments.
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